How does Shakespeare present Lady Macbeth in Act 1 Scene 5 and Act 1 Scene 7? Essay

Macbeth is one of Shakespeare’s most famous tragedies and was first performed in 1611, however it was written in 1603. This was in the Elizabethan period, which despite the country being ruled by a woman; women had to be obedient towards their masters. Women of the time had to be the housewives who did the cooking and looked after the children, and the men were the breadwinners. From the aspect of theatre, all women roles were played by young boys, this proved difficult especially in Macbeth, where a woman is acting as though she is a man. This is both ironic and complex as she is subject to a hyper masculine world. Lady Macbeth is a very intricate character in that she has both masculine and feminine qualities that intertwine throughout the play. While being very authoritative when talking to Macbeth in the early scenes of the play, she is also quite easily distressed. This is apparent when she faints at the sight of the dead bodies of the guards and exclaims ‘help me hence, ho!’ Fainting in Shakespearean times was seen to be a very womanly attribute. Shakespeare has used Lady Macbeth to show what it is like for a woman as she was frustrated with the restrictions put upon her gender. She is somewhat unconventional in her mannerisms as she is portrayed as a very commanding character and is seen to not be very maternal. In fact she declares ‘come you spirits†¦unsex me here.’ This reiterates the unconventional side of her persona, giving us an insight into her thoughts and feelings at the time. We see Lady Macbeth first in Act 1 Scene 5 where, in the stage directions, she is described as; ‘alone, reading a letter.’ This immediately shows that she is well educated. In addition the letter she is reading is Macbeth’s letter, so Lady Macbeth’s first words in the play were Macbeth’s originally, this demonstrates male dominance from the beginning. The reading of the letter, in terms of the theatrical view is read as a soliloquy, moreover this letter is used as a dramatic device, it informs the audience of what has happened and gives background information, and also it brings the audience up to the present time in the play. The fact that the letter is read as a soliloquy has significance in that it reveals the loneliness of Lady Macbeth. We can sympathise with her because it is understandable to think that it would be tough to live in these times as a women, with great restriction and certain guidelines to follow. Witchcraft is also a major element in this play; this is because the play is set in the time of James I, who had a certain fascination with anything remotely witch-like. In fact James I wrote a book called Demonology which was solely based on witchcraft. Being a witch had terrible consequences; death by hanging of being burned at the stake, this cruel persecution amplified the superstition and misogyny of the time. Act one Scene five is littered with references to witchcraft and spirits. When talking about Macbeth’s new position in the society she uses the word ‘metaphysical’ which means super-natural much like a witch. Something which is super-natural is not natural and possesses witch like traits. Shakespeare also uses ‘the raven’ which symbolises disaster and death and is regarded as an evil omen. Later on in the scene it Shakespeare has made it seem like Lady Macbeth is talking to someone or something, this can be interpreted as Lady Macbeth talking to the spirits, while doing this she says ‘come you spirits that tend on mortal thoughts.’ She is inviting the spirits to have fatal and murderous thoughts, so that her husband Macbeth can be king. This is a principle of witchcraft and all its myths that is considered to be the most recognised. Yet another convention of witchcraft is intelligence, and Lady Macbeth uses manipulation and deception to get her way with Macbeth. She refers to Macbeth as ‘living like a coward.’ This simile is both emotive and manipulative, in that it will provoke a sense of masculinity in Macbeth. This means that Lady Macbeth can get him to do anything for her, because Macbeth has a point to prove. Intelligence was seen as a masculine trait o any woman who was intelligent was deemed to be a witch. Lady Macbeth makes plans for treason by wanting to kill Duncan which is a very unconventional thought. Moreover how she controls Macbeth in the use of language ‘art thou afeard’ shows that Lady Macbeth is questioning Macbeth’s masculinity. Additionally she is extremely unmaternal and quite independent especially towards the end of the play. Lady Macbeth is an exceptionally complex character possessing both feminine and masculine traits, this is echoed by her willingness to be a devoted wife but also a controlling one too which is irregular for the time. She shows her devotedness when she is waiting for him to come home and give her the good news about his new position in the hierarchy she says ‘thou would have great glamis’ This shows that she would love him to be the thane of Cawdor. However she then goes on to say that he will need some help along the way, she wishes she was not a woman and instead in Macbeth’s position. From the beginning she explains how Macbeth would be ‘too full o’ th’ milk of human kindness,’ in this extended metaphor it illustrates Lady Macbeth’s thinking of Macbeth, she believes that he is too kind and that he is too womanly to undertake a role such as a king. Milk is representative of females as it refers to the breast milk that a mother would lovingly provide for her child. It implies that she needs to help him to succeed as he is too gentle, a very unconventional thought. This is very eccentric and to a certain extent not very maternal. This is the first major antithesis of the play as there is a major contradiction between what her first thoughts are and her final thoughts are. At first she is a loving wife with great envy for her husband and then later on this envy turns into jealousy and bitterness. The other chief paradox in the play is the theme of being maternal, Lady Macbeth expresses her feelings about the sweetness of babies, explaining that she knows ‘how tender ’tis to love the babe that milks me’ This shows Lady Macbeth’s conventional side, showing that she can be loving and caring, it also tells the audience and readers that Lady Macbeth have some kind of a child and that she has lost that child because there is no mention of it thereafter this section. The contrast to the conventional side is that she would ‘dash the brains out’ of the baby. This is very shocking and unconventional language that stirs up mixed emotions inside the readers and listeners of the play. Shakespeare has complicated the role of Lady Macbeth by making her seem more masculine in both her language and her actions. Lady Macbeth rejects femininity yet again when saying ‘make thick my blood’. This shows her need for strength, it could also be interpreted as her saying that she wants menstruation to stop, as it is a reminder of being a female. Another metaphor for the menstruation is ‘that no compunctions visitings of nature’. This also shows that she is rejecting femininity and wanting menstruation to stop. Also the extended metaphor of milk is used again in this section when she begs ‘take my milk for gall, you murd’ring ministers.’ Alliteration is used to make the sentence flow, in addition ‘gall’ was thought to promote rage or malice, not a conventional desire from a woman, this adds to the complexity of the character. Moreover this segment relates back to the invocation of the spirits, Lady Macbeth gives the impression of talking to spirits or in this case the ministers, refusing traits of womanliness in favour of masculinity. Linking with the spirits, Lady Macbeth says she will ‘chastise with the valour of my tongue’. This is quite a complex phrase out of context, however it refers to Lady Macbeth stopping herself saying anything to Macbeth about the circumstance he is in. This adds to the dramatic effect of this piece because as the audience later finds out, she could not be controlled, this is dramatic irony. Using the word chastise indicates that she should be punished if she says anything out of turn. However it is with the valour or bravery, which is a masculine trait, and her tongue or speech, a feminine trait. Adding to Lady Macbeth’s unconventional nature, she is very controlling over Macbeth, something that in the time of the play was punishable. In the later stages of Act One Scene Five she is explaining that both her and Macbeth should look welcoming to Duncan when he arrives, however there is a certain essence of deception when she deviously proclaims to Macbeth that he should ‘look like the innocent flower, / but be the serpent under’t’ This reveals her devious nature and manipulation and cleverness of speech as this is a well coordinated metaphor. The serpent is regarded as a symbol of evil adding to the deviousness of the quotation. As Macbeth tries to speak about the situation he has been put in he utters ‘we will speak further-‘ Shakespeare has used the hyphen to suggest that Lady Macbeth has interrupted him, now controlling how long he has to talk. Lady Macbeth has the last word by saying ‘Leave all the rest o me’ which emphasi ses her controlling nature as she is in command of the occasion. Throughout the play Lady Macbeth is extremely clever with her tongue, in that she provokes Macbeth to feel uneasy and this spurs him on to become king later on. Her cleverness of speech in magnified in Act one Scene seven when she is trying to persuade Macbeth to take the opportune moment. Using clever language hinting at bad judgement and using the colours ‘green and pale’ when referring to the way he is approaching becoming the king, as she describes the crown as the ‘ornament of life’ another metaphor indicating that the throne is all there is to live for. Lady Macbeth also relates to a bible passage wherein she talks about the ‘cat i’ th’ adage’ This proverb is about a cat that does not want to get its feet wet when searching for a fish, this shows both her education and ingenuity when it comes to her manipulation of words. Lady Macbeth then ignores Macbeth’s attempt to calm her down with ‘prithee peace’ and carries on in the same manner she started. The alliteration was meant to calm Lady Macbeth however it did no such thing. Towards the latter phase of the scene she uses words such as ‘we, you, our’ and ‘I’ this gives the impression of togetherness of the couple as she is trying to avoid separation. Macbeth then uses a pun when saying to Lady Macbeth that she should ‘bring forth men children only, for thy undaunted mettle should compose/nothing but males’. The play on words is with the word mettle, it means both courage and strength as in armour, and this shows that he thinks she is a vey strong woman with a strong personality, which should not be played with. Lady Macbeth shows a certain amount of deterioration when it comes to controlling what Macbeth decides, she is reserved to her bed where she is constantly trying to wash the blood of her hands. However the blood is not physically there and she is just imagining it a problem that increases until she chooses to commit suicide, just as Macbeth reaches the height of his power. I believe Shakespeare shows this decline as an act of misogyny, because it shows that a woman cannot cope with the pressures of a man. The other women in the play such as Lady Macduff are more conventional, as she is the house wife, who looks after the children and cooks the meals, unlike Lady Macbeth as she is very independent and has no children. This paradox shows the key differences between them and highlights the effect on the husband in the situation. At the end Macduff wins the fight against a possessed Macbeth, possibly possessed by the death of Duncan which resulted in the suicide of his wife, a chronological downfall constructed by his wife. An audience of the modern day would respond to Lady Macbeth in a different way to a Shakespearean audience. This is due to women having a higher role in society, in that they are no longer looked down upon. Therefore a woman partaking in manly activities is not frowned upon, many women nowadays are choosing occupations instead of settling down with a family, and they are certainly allowed to have a say in any relationship they are in. Consequently an audience of today would see Lady Macbeth as a normal woman in that she is intelligent and independent in her own right, however they would be disapproving of her plotting murder against the monarchy but the reaction would not necessarily be so intense. Shakespeare has presented Lady Macbeth as a clever and controlling woman that is confused by the hyper masculine world she is subject to. However from the audience’s point of view it could be seen as misogynistic, as it is showing a woman to be like a man, it shows that it does not work, as Lady Macbeth eventually breaks down. Therefore it could reveal what Shakespeare thinks would happen if a female acted like a male. Throughout this tragedy Shakespeare builds up the character of Lady Macbeth from the first word she says to the last few words before her suicide. Shakespeare has created a domineering and intellectual character which is ready to face the prejudices of the Elizabethan era. To a tee she overcomes these chauvinisms and cleverly reverses the convention that a woman should do as a man says the basis for the entire play.

Philippine history Essay

During the colonization of the Philippines, the Filipinos lost their freedom. They were being abused by the Spaniards. These are the settings in the Spaniards colonization: The Filipinos are required to pay a TRIBUTO or TRIBUTE (TAX). FORCED LABOR is established under the Spaniards government. It is where the male Filipinos 16-60 of age were required to work for the government for 40 days in one year. They were assigned to build or repair roads and bridges Sometimes, they would be assigned to work on a shipyards or foundries or to cut timber in the forest. They were also used as soldiers or sailors. The law required that the worker should be given a nominal salary and to have a free rice rations, but then the officials of the Spaniards government were corrupt and ignored the law. They pocketed the salaries and the rice rations were distributed to them. Another burden imposed on Filipinos was the BANDALA. It is a compulsory sale by the Filipino farmers of their farm products to the Spaniards. This system was being abused also by the Spaniards, their goods were undervalued and in many cases their products were not even paid for. The Spaniards introduced Western or European system of education wherein the principal aim of the education in the Philippines during Spanish regime was to make the Filipinos obedient to them and to be a god fearing Christians. Spaniards established many other systems which are only for their own good. The Filipinos became slaves for a long time. They abused the Filipinos. They were also being maltreated by the Spaniards. Others are being killed. By the help of our great men and some Americans, the Philippines became free from  the hands of the Spanish. And this is the end of the Spanish regime. The United States had a different approach in colonizing the Philippines. The Americans considered educating the Filipinos as one of their top priorities in The Philippines. They treated the Filipinos like their friends. These are the settings in the American colonization: The Americans built schools in the City. Because the Filipinos were hungry for education, they flocked to public and private schools in large numbers. They teach English language to the Filipinos. (The American soldiers were the first teachers of the Filipinos.) They established the Philippine public school system. It provided for free primary education and the establishment of a school to train Filipino teachers. They gave the bright young Filipino students an opportunity to take up higher education in American universities and colleges. They introduced Protestantism (It did not gain wide acceptance maybe because Filipinos were deeply believed in Catholicism). They also established Aglipayan Church (Independent Church). The economic development of the Philippines progressed.

Starbucks in China Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Starbucks in China - Case Study Example As the marketing rule goes, it has been known that the best of the market share can be achieved only if the organizations and firms go global. This can also be achieved by having risk taking minds behind the strategies. Starbucks has been planning to open around 1200 stores on an international scale this year alone (Fellner, 2008, p. 12). The main strategy that has been seen to be followed and been implemented by Starbucks includes the global level joint ventures and partnerships that Starbucks has with the other coffee chains all around the world. These are the ventures that allow the other companies to own and run coffee chains. The local partner of the country knows the best locations and can make aware of the local tax issues and customer demands, thus giving Starbucks a bit added customer appeal (Earnshaw, Graham et al., 2005, p. 33). Starbucks has been seen to gain much popularity in China as compared to KFC and McDonalds. China has been embracing the idea of global trade and global business since many years and it has been seen that the foreign firms and organizations feel at home while they work in a foreign country, especially China. One of the main strategies that has been implied by Starbucks is that it is aware that the Chinese people do not like coffee. Therefore, Starbucks plans to provide the Chinese with more kinds and varieties of tea.

Unit 1 Discussion Board Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 6

Unit 1 Discussion Board - Essay Example Based on recent statistics, for instance, the national health care expenditure amounted to $1,299.5 billion. (Patel, Rushefsky & McFarlane 2005, p. 7) However, the situation today is far from the ideal and that many criticisms were voiced in regard to the decline of the entire public health system. Despite the current extensive coverage by the federal government in many aspects of health care, many programs have failed (such as the short-lived Clinton health care reform) and the national health care performance continues to deteriorate. The argument is that financing is not the problematic area; instead, the problems include the unbalanced appropriation of the funds as well as the inefficient public health infrastructure brought about by organizational turmoil and fractionalized interest. These dilemmas are consequences of a politicized health care system, wherein politicians decide populist policies in order to be elected. According to a report made by the Institute of Medicine in 1988, many health departments suffer problems of health care delivery, financing and quality of personal health services. It cited that public health services have fallen into disarray while the ability of the public health system to take effective actions to deal with continuing and emerging public health threats is questionable. A later report – one that has been published in 2002 - concluded that not a great deal has changed since the previous report, stressing that public health law at all levels of government is outdated and internally inconsistent creating inefficiency and lack of coordination. These developments underscore the role that the political system in the US plays in the public health system of the nation. To illustrate: Instead of prioritizing the goals and objectives of an existing health care program, new directions and policies would be introduced because the tide of public opinion as reflected in the polls

Evaluating an International Human Resource Strategy (TESCO) Essay

Evaluating an International Human Resource Strategy (TESCO) - Essay Example Moreover, I would be discussing the entire chunk of international HR strategy into the following five major and broad categories, namely; In addition, I would be stressing out the major issues which the Tesco Plc representatives and it HR department would have to be catered with when extending and flourishing its activities into another region of world on the basis of contractual relationships with its new appointed joint venture partners. Furthermore, I would also be discussing and detailing out some of the other relevant aspects and areas related to Tesco plc, which would probably be including; Hence, the overall and comprehensive purpose of this report is the evaluation, recommendation and analysis of vital and relevant international HR strategies and issues with which Tesco Plc would be challenged when it plan out to take certain growth initiatives under is business circle with its foreign joint venture partner in the market area of China. Tesco PLC  is one of the largest and popular British  multinational  Company which is directly engaged and associated in the business of grocery and general nature merchandise retailer, having its headquarter in  Cheshunt, Hertfordshire in England, United Kingdom (Tescoplc.com, 2014). Furthermore, Tesco Plc is recognized as the second largest retailer all over the globe, after  Wal-Mart, when it comes to the measurement of its overall profits and revenues. Company is quite successful in establishing its chain of merchandise stores in more than 12 countries scattered all around the regions of Asia,  North America, Malaysia, Thailand, the  Republic of Ireland and Europe (Reuters, 2014). In addition, Tesco Plc is essentially considered as one of the grocery market leader in entire region of the UK, where it accumulates the overall market share of approximately 30% on aggregate basis in similar industry. Historically speaking, Tesco

Discuss the ways in which contemporary organisational theory can be Essay

Discuss the ways in which contemporary organisational theory can be read as criticism of organisational theories developed in the course of the 20th century - Essay Example During the early 20th century the imperialist era started while the situation then demanded the workers of revolutionary and the new type parties are said to be capable to lead then bring the completions which was then victorious as the struggle that is against bourgeoisie preserving the rule and then set up the repressive ramification with state apparatus, the military machine which is said to be powerful and the means in economic, political and ideological for the purpose of disuniting as well s disarming with those people who are working. The workers of new type are said to be capable in order to lead the class who are working and not to be advanced as well as organized and conscious part in politics with the class considerably working but also in the organization as the highest form that directs all the proletarian organizations with all forms of struggles by the proletariat. There is also evolution of capitalism during the 20th century with pre-monopoly capitalism that becomes v ery imperative with the said working class raising the This is also the period that marked the struggle which is against the right line of opportunist in terms of International leadership in order to build the revolutionary parties that is proletarian capable to lead the socialist revolutions in terms of the countries classified as the capitalist imperialist and the revolutions that are said to be democratic in Asia, African and those countries who are said to Latin-American under the oppression and plunder while both the revolutionary trends may form the integral parts of the world as the revolution in socialist area as well as the organization and at the same time leading the proletariat with the toiling masses in terms of democracy and of course socialism. The struggle was then experienced on all the fronts under the CPSU leadership leading to the great victory regarding the Revolution of October while forming the Third International as well as the communist parties' formation that happened and experience all over the world which was then surrounded with the class as revolutionary and organizational mass. The adverse were said to be the real break through from the stagnant period facing the movement of revolution by the first decade of the 20th century. The trade unions was then organized as part of the said activities which was then during the period while Lenin was able to write the Trade Union Organizations considerably of tremendous value that served the development as well as the economic struggle consolidation but became very important in terms of auxiliary in agitation for politics and the organizational revolution and those right who are Contemporary Organizational Theory P

Technology paper ( mouse) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Technology paper ( mouse) - Essay Example Introduction Technological revolution and the use of computers systems have transformed human perception to almost all operations and tasks. Living in the midst of technological harbor, several changes have been envisaged with the use of computer application, which transforms the society into a digital hub leading to sustainable economy. The use of computer systems has facilitated management, communication, data processing and information security but all these has been made even much easier with an aid of a computer mouse, which is classified as a computer point and draw device [Salvendy,2001,p. 36]. The mouse innovation According to SpringerLink, 2011, p. [1236], the earliest forms of computers such as the electronic numerical integrators or the main frames never used the mouse technology. This is because their applications were based on command prompt, which only required typing in commands to execute an instruction. However, with the introduction of windows in 1985, a mouse was d eveloped to assist in the maneuvering around the computer different applications. A mouse sizeable enough to fit the palm is made up of two buttons left and right with a trackball at the bottom. It is meant to detect two dimensional motions relative to the supporting surface. The mouse is meant to be physically beneath the palm with the two fingers resting on the buttons respectively. When the device moves on a surface, the user gets into a position to track, drag select and move files, icons or even folders. Moreover, a mouse allows the user to draw images and navigate almost all applications within a computer system. The first mouse was invented by Douglas Engelbart in 1968 after completing his research concerning studies about the human interpretation with computers. However, the official launch of this invention was put into public at Xerox Paulo research center in 1970 [SpringerLink, 2011.p. 1236]. Classifications of mouse Since the introduction of mouse into the market, there have been several classifications based on technology, mode of operation and usage. The most common type of mouse in the market includes: Mechanical mouse This type of mouse uses a ball to move the cursor on the surface of the screen. In order to enjoy the best efficacies, a flat pad would be needed to enable the rubber ball which is contained beneath to roll easily. The rolling ball would triggers the movement of the cursor on to the surface, which further translates into information understood by the computer system [SpringerLink, 2011, p 1236]. Optical mouse Optical mouse uses the sense of lesser rays to help detect the mouse movement in line with the arranged pixels on the surface where the movement is being made. The optical mouse uses red light emitting diode (LED) sensor to induce movement on the surfaces and send signals into the computer for interpretations. The red light emitting diode (LED) bounces the light off the surface onto the complementary metal-oxide semiconductor (CMOS). This mouse offers, the most effective speed and can be used in almost all surfaces [SpringerLink, 2011, p. 1236]. Wireless mouse This type of mouse usually comes up with additional dongle that are attached to the USB ports. The mouse itself contains a Bluetooth transmitter, which sends signal to the dongle acting as the Bluetooth receiver. The signals would then be interpreted by the computer

Essay in International Relations Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

In International Relations - Essay Example There are proofs that women can positively influence political culture, political approaches, and political decisions when they are part of the decision-making process. Numerous women have been largely involved in international affairs as peacemakers; working with both parties in order to come up with a diplomatic solution; coordinating with other actors and inspiring other women to be vigorously involved. Almost all women seem to have a quite different view of violence, security, and peace than majority of men. Drude Dahlerup, an expert in feminist theory, believes that women’s political involvement should be considered a potential for change. With a greater number of women in power, there has, based on the Scandinavian policymakers she has talked with, been an entire array of political changes. Chenoy and Vanaik investigate women’s political status in South Asia. Their main objective is to find out whether changing the gender balance in major agencies responsible for conflict resolution, security, and peace will create opportunities for more nonviolent solution to conflicts. They claim that it is the realism principle which prevailed in the internal conflicts in the area and the relationship between Pakistan and India (Skjelsboek et al., 2001). The principle of realism believes in patriarchy, which further influence uncompromising ideas of womanhood (Steans et al., 2013). Chenoy and Vanaik believe that in order to transform the political environment there should be a new framework for international security, which should be rooted in the understanding that gender is a component of the political domain and is integral to state’s identity and the international community’s structure. Similarly, Samuel refers to the large number of complexities and inconsistencies that describe the participation of women in conflict resolution in Sri Lanka. Women’s status and roles in Sri Lanka have transformed because of the persistent conflict . The slaughter of men has brought about an increasing number of female-led households. Samuel thoroughly explained the numerous women’s efforts with regard to the arena of conflict resolution (Banerjee, 2008). Women’s associations have collaborated vigorously with human rights agencies. The organization ‘Women for Peace’ successfully mobilized an appeal asking for negotiations; this consequently resulted in the preliminary series of political discussions between the Tamil revolutionary leaders and government officials in 1984 (Banerjee, 2008). Samuel demonstrates the vital part that women and women’s organizations have fulfilled in conflict resolution operations, and emphasizing the value of having a greater number of women engaged in the process of decision-making. Slapsak, on the other hand, presents comprehensive cultural and historical information to understand how women responded to the Yugoslav war. She claims that throughout the war those in volved, especially women’s organizations, used ancient stories of being a masculinity and femininity (Bahun-Radunovic & Rajan, 2008). Her study shows that historically, and even literarily, women are viewed as equally strong leaders as men. The idea that relationships among nations would be more diplomatic or nonviolent if women occupy powerful positions focuses mainly on the conventional belief that women are less antagonistic or aggressive and, on the contrary, more peace-loving and compassionate gender (Bahun-Radunovic & Rajan, 2008). By studying the attitude and behavior of high-ranking women in the public and private sector, it may be logical to assume that women who occupied powerful positions exhibited masculine features, making the idea that women in power are more conciliatory and are peacemakers

Discuss Freud's theory of the unconscious and give all the examples of Essay

Discuss Freud's theory of the unconscious and give all the examples of Freudian psychodynamic techniques that aim to make the unconscious conscious - Essay Example These unconscious forces represent primitive instinctual drives and ideal person that a person wishes to be. However, human conscious plays a balancing role in the personality. To explain id, one can say that it represents the natural inborn instinctual drives of food, sex and shelter. Id encourages one’s self to go about fulfilling these drives. It is these primitive drives that id encourages person to fulfill these desires. On the other hand, we have another conscious force known as super ego. Super ego represents the ideal person we wish to be in the eyes of other. It therefore encourages a person to be become perfectionist and to always do the socially correct thing. However, this again is not always possible and person needs to balance the id and the super ego. This balancing is provided by the presence of ego. Ego is one’s conscious personality which balances the desires of id and super ego. It is necessary because we can neither fulfill our instinctual drives and needs to look at the time and space and we cannot be perfectionists because we have to make a lot of compromises if to live a successful life. All of the above discussion was about the unconscious personality in humans which Sigmund Freud talked about. In fact he was the founder and was the first one to promulgate this concept. There was no such concept before that and his definition and introduction of human conscious opened the doors for various future psychological research. He believed that actions and behaviors of every human are linked to unconscious and this is linked to development. To further elaborate the concept he introduced new concepts of ego, superego and id which are discussed above. He named his approach as psychoanalytic approach. The major problem for the psychologists following this approach and for Sigmund Freud himself was how to unearth this unconscious of human beings. According to Freud, since human beings themselves are not aware about

Subsidies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Subsidies - Research Paper Example This paper aims at examining the relationship between subsidies and economic growth in the context of developing countries. Subsidies are financial assistance provided by the government of a country to some of its domestic firms or a specific industry or sector (Schaffer, Agusti & Earle 374). The governments of different countries allocate subsidies to its industries with a variety of objectives both in direct and indirect forms. However, the central purpose of levying a subsidy is to keep the price below the level normally determined by the market forces in the sector in which the subsidy is provided and accelerate the course of development in the entire nation (Moltke, McKee & Morgan 23). In particular, subsidies are provided to those industries or sectors which are lagging behind the other sectors in the economy in terms of performance or are not being able to perform up the expected level. The subject about impact of subsidies on the developing countries is quite researched upon. Before going into the details of my research work I shall review some of the existing literature on this topic in this section. Peacock elaborates in his paper the role of subsidies is important in the overall welfare of the economy (Peocock 323-335). Although elimination of subsidies on necessary goods, such as agricultural products, medicines and other items related to health sector and the petroleum products, is a key policy prescription for the developing countries by the World Bank, no persuasive theory has been developed supporting this policy. Amegashie states in this context that the governments of the developing countries should exercise caution in following a process of removing subsidies since it might give rise to agitation on part of the citizens (Amegashie 7-15). Thus, the research will try to explore the effects and side effects of such system. The study employs secondary sources. The research will employ Qualitative method and

Culture and Hipster Central Dogma Essay Example for Free

Culture and Hipster Central Dogma Essay Hipster is a subculture of young (15 25), urban middle class adults and older teenagers that appeared in the 1990s.The subculture is associated with non-mainstream lifestyle. They value independent thinking, progressive politics, creativity, intelligence and non-mainstream fashion sensibility. Most of them can be found living in the big cities like New York, Chicago, and San Francisco. Also hipsterism is often intertwined with distinct fashion sensibilities .Hipsters reject the culturally-ignorant attitudes of mainstream consumers, and are often be seen wearing vintage, tight jeans, old-school sneakers, and often thick rimmed glasses. Men and women hipsters have similar androgynous hair styles that include combinations of dirty shag cuts and asymmetric side-swept bangs. Such styles are the work of creative stylists at urban salons, and are usually not mainstream. Despite the misconception made ​​on the external image, hipsters tend to be well educated in sciences, which require certain creative analytical thinking abilities. This leads to the fact that they find themselves in creative works, such as music, art, and fashion industries. It is a myth that most hipsters are unemployed and live off of their parents trust funds. Hipsters shun mainstream, It is part of the hipster central dogma not to be influenced by mainstream advertising and media. This is tends to only promote ethnocentric ideals of beauty, the concepts of androgyny and feminism have influenced hipster culture, where hipster men are often as thin as the women they date. Women view the muscular, athletic and other male ideals as symbols of their oppression, sexism, and misogyny. Likewise, culturally-vapid sorority-type girls with fake blond hair, overly tanned skin, and Britney Spears tube-tops are not seen as attractive by cultured hipster males who instead see them as symbols of female insecurity, low self-esteem, and lack of cultural intelligence and independent thinking. Likewise, girls with fake blond hair and overly tanned skin are not seen as attractive by cultured hipster males who instead see them as symbols of female insecurity, low self-esteem, and lack of cultural intelligence and independent thinking. There are many interracial couples in hipster subculture because they are very racially open-minded. Although hipsters are conformists within their own subculture, in comparison to the much larger mainstream mass they are pioneers latest cultural trends and ideals. For example many bands have become successful and known to mainstream audiences only because hipsters first found and listened to them as early-adopters of new culture. Once certain concepts of fashion and music have reached mainstream audiences, hipsters move on to something new and improved. Once something from fashion and music have reached mainstream audiences, hipsters move on to something new. Because of the rise of various online photo-blog and social networking sites, insights into urban hipster culture is reaching sheltered suburban audiences at an exponential rate. Cultural norms have been deconstructed by hipster culture as a whole.

Effects Of Making Assumptions Based On Stereotypes Social Work Essay

Effects Of Making Assumptions Based On Stereotypes Social Work Essay Stereotype reflects the perception one has of other individuals based on their different physical abilities, emotional appearance, religious, cultural disposition, sexual orientation or ethnicity without knowing anything personal about that person and these views are often connected to experiences, observations or other influences such as the media. I will first outline below some of the reasons why it is important to avoid making assumptions based on stereotypes when providing care for someone and then later on show how individual care workers can guard against doing this. Making assumptions, based on stereotypes, when providing care for someone can have a negative effect on the quality of care, as illustrated in the case of Mhà  iri who suffered from a stroke and needed a wheelchair but opted instead for personal care at home. The care manager, Stuart, who did the assessment could have found out about her sexual preference had he not assumed because she was married that her relationship with partner Gillian was heterosexual. This would have allowed more sensitivity to be shown by the carers when attending to her personal needs. The stereotypical assumption that disabled people cannot communicate would have the consequence of them not being listened to properly and this would deny them the right to appropriate services and having a voice. This would impact on their individuality and personal needs, thereby affecting the quality of care being provided. As one participant wheelchair user pointed out in Its like when you go to the hospital or the doctors, if you go with anybody because youre in a wheelchair they dont address you, they look over you and that really infuriates me. This underscores the need to speak directly with the service users rather than making assumptions that they are helpless or not capable of discussing their caring needs. Showing narrow-mindedness because an assumption is made based on stereotype, is being prejudice and this was highlighted in Gypsy Travellers report about prejudice within the health care service. It can prevent Gypsies from gaining access to appropriate medical services such as the barrier presented by a receptionist the receptionist are harder to get past à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I think theyre doing the doctor a favour à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ I did something good today, I kept the Gypsies away. Another stereotypical assumption illustrated in is that people with mental health problems are prone to violence such was the case of Simon Jackson. However, he was just reaching out for help and often misunderstood, as he was suspicious of any authority figure. Making stereotypical assumptions can prevent people receiving appropriate care and if a carer has a prejudicial view it could further complicate the matter and deter users from accessing the services. For example, as given in, a disabled lesbian fel t that she was seen as somehow unnatural or abnormal. However, when these beliefs are carried through, it becomes discrimination. An example of this provided in K101 Block 3 Unit 10 where council estate residents were seen as failures and not interested in academic success. In providing care for someone in a local community, care workers should recognise and value diversity, that is, people are different and should be treated differently but fairly to avoid inequality and discrimination. Therefore, it should not be assumed that providing personal care for an Asian female would be the same or similar to that for a white European female. Care workers need to be culturally sensitive and take into account the differences in peoples lifestyles and family relationships. As in people with speech impediments are sometimes stereotyped as being deaf and are often shouted at when communicating and this should not be indicative of all people with such a disability. When providing care for someone with this disability, a carer needs to be more informed about that persons capabilities before engaging to avoid any communication barriers or leaving that person feeling demoralised. It may sometimes be necessary to use stereotypes and make assumptions as it can act as a guide to help in decision-making, such as when organizing a social event for older people in a care home as this could be the target audience and provide the opportunity to cater to their specific needs. Individual care workers can guard against making assumptions based on stereotypes by being more tolerant and make every effort to understand that person better. The care worker should find out what help a disabled person needs instead of assuming what they think they need based on previous experiences or observations. It is important for care workers to avoid being condescending when disabled people are accompanied by their cares but should communicate directly with the disabled persons. If the care worker is not able to understand someone with a hearing impairment, they could ask the person to tell them how they prefer to communicate and not pretend to have understood them when they have not or they could become familiar with that persons method of communication and find ways of keeping that communication going with aids such as Mankaton or other similar sign language. It is essential to identify that there are different religious, cultural and other particular needs of people, ther efore care workers should also see service users as individuals and tailor care according to their individual preferences so that appropriate services can be provided. Care workers need to develop a knowledge and understanding of how the law affecting disability and discrimination as the Disability Discrimination Act 1995 protects disabled people and does not only apply to people who have a physical disability, visual or hearing impairment but can also cover people with learning disabilities. In addition, they should also be familiar with the Race Relations Act 1976, as it is unlawful to discriminate against a person on ground of race, colour, ethnic origin or nationality. An example of this was demonstrated in with an account given by Roz, a white nurse when a patients wife made loud racist remarks that she thought it was disgusting that her husband should be in a bay with three black men on their own which offended the men. Roz did not collude with this racist view by changing the ir bays but instead left the men to sort it out amongst themselves, after gaining their views. In conclusion, an assumption based on stereotypes when providing care for someone should be avoided as it could be construed as being prejudicial or discriminatory and is likely to have a negative Impact on the service user. Individual care workers can guard against doing this by recognising the diverse global village we live in and be respectful of other peoples cultural, religious beliefs and ethnicity as well as any government legislation relating to disability and discrimination.

Alice In Wonderland Movie Review Film Studies Essay

Alice In Wonderland Movie Review Film Studies Essay The film I choose to write a critical review of is Alice in Wonderland (2010). The genres of the film have aspects that are adventure, action, adventure, comedy, fantasy, animation, kids, science fiction and family. The original novel written in 1865 by the English author Charles Lutwidge Dodgson with the pseudonym Lewis Carroll consisted of a progression of haphazard dealings and character connections. It was enjoyable to see the characters in the movie were able to work together to achieve an exceptional outcome. Alice in the original novel wanders around a dreamland that deals with her own apprehensions and her vague expectation that events will not be all pleasant and trouble-free. All of these captivating characters, landscapes and experiences spread out in a dream language. Given this is the essence of the original this, it should be an easy undertaking to produce a movie that really leaves a lasting impression .The overall result of the film is not impressive beyond what would be expected from this style of work but and it is a fun atmosphere. Where the film succeeds, it does succeed very well, all to the consistency of Tim Burtons imaginative and creative visuals. Each genre has a thematic and stylistic territory, and sometimes the style of one genre spills into the thematic territory of another. This sort of innovation is not the kind that is normally recognized as the work of a genius, but is considered merely clever. Yet it is the kind of innovation and playing with boundaries that keeps audiences coming to genre movies. (University, Unit 1: The Usefulness of Genre) Alice in Wonderland (2010) is not a retelling, reworking or a remaking of the original childrens classic novels by Lewis Carroll but is a version that is a sequel to the original. It is not even the 1951 Disney adaptation. If the viewer is expecting a pure and complete adaptation, then there may be some disappoint. Instead, Tim Burton re-imagines the esteemed and treasured story in the genuine good judgment of recreation. This is by giving Alice an added and established background, in addition to a romantic subplot involving Alice and the Mad Hatter. There is also much more focus on the conflict concerning good and evil. It is the classic tale of good against evil and the stunning and dramatic final battle of good versus evil that ensues. Alice is to slay a monster that has been predicted by the scroll. Tim Burtons, Alice in Wonderland more than does the classic tale justice. Danny Elfman composes the wonderful music is very nice but ultimately completely unforgettable and always be top notch. Then there are the marvellous visual effects, excellent acting and amazing animation and design. This is a movie that will indulge your senses. The Mad Hatter has an intensity and capacity of character that was downplayed by the movie trailers. In the trailers, only the upbeat Mad Hatter was seen. He has a darker side to his character as well as madness of the darkest sort is by no means far off from the surface. The Mad Hatter is by far one of the greatest characters in the film. Alices expedition that allowed growth from a timid, to some extent unconventional, girl into an audacious and heroic young woman is magnificent and convincing. Alice brought back together with her friends from childhood: the Cheshire Cat, the Caterpillar, the Dormouse, Tweedledum and Tweedledee, the Mad Hatter, and of course the White Rabbit. Alice enters into an extraordinary journey to d iscover her true destiny and conclude the Red Queens supremacy over the land. Tim Burton did not strive for bright and beautiful magic, but for dreary and wasteful once a wonderland The movie is not the dark world that Tim Burton usually gives his audience but a softer more child friendly world. The story picks up when Alice is 19-years old and subsequent to the passing of her father. She is proposed to be married away and feeling pressured, she runs off, following the white rabbit, which leads her to into Wonderland. She only vaguely remembers this magical place from childhood. The story is admittedly a very simple one but one that can be easily followed. It is to the storys credit that Alice is now an adult, as it is able to facilitate many more happenings in Wonderland. A place where things can be sometimes be quite grotesque, unfriendly and bizarre. It is an out of the ordinary adventure and tale about a young womans voyage to an alternate reality. That is testing the strength of her will power, resourcefulness and courage in the visage of danger and weirdness. Wonderland is an extension of Alices frustrations with the real world where she felt that she had many expectations from outside forces. Alice in Wonderland succeeds on numerous levels that I am uncertain who would fail to not be charmed by it. The film even has glance and hints at Alices early life. It is also to my surprise touching specifically the relationship between Alice and her father. The film measures up to other films in its genre in that it is a family movie that has a charming and interesting story. It is full of interesting characters and a journey through Wonderland to observe all sorts of attention-grabbing landscapes. There is a positive impact on this film on other films since to bring a classic back in a new way leads the pack. It is intended for adults and children to watch together. The film is a wondrous piece of escapism. The social context of the film like many of Tim Burtons movies amuses at specifically the kind of individual who does not get this movie. Tim Burtons Alice in Wonderland is a magnificent metaphor for the correlation between Tim Burton and his audience. These are individuals who have lost touch with the wonderment of their own childhoods. These same individuals who are mostly connected to the idea of what is proper and fashionable. The uninteresting people with little imagination and even less open-mindedness for it in others. The premise of the movie is to facilitate the idea that only small amounts of people in the world and only the best people still have that kind of limitless imagination. They are the ones that can find enjoyment in the truly original, even as the rest of civil society considers them as being eccentric, outlandish, or simply awkward. These people are represented in the film both in the real world at the party and another time in the Red Queens court. Movies have no scruples. They are always borrowing from literature or adapting novels wholesale into feature films. And, as everyone who has ever read a novel that has been turned into a movie know, the book is always better-simply because books pay attention to detail; they describe rather than depict characters (so readers can form their own impressions); and they paint a broader canvas of life-changing events. Movies always leave things out. They change the original story, of which the readers are extremely protective. (University, Unit 2: Genre History and Literary Precedents) For all the individuals that were not able to enjoy the movie as a form of entertain then they have lost the child in them. Individuals will complain about it not being accurate to the original book but in time, they will accept it. A generation from now this original film will be analyzed as one of the greatest creative fantasies of our present times. The idea that this is how people may feel in the modern day, which is pressured into something, they really do not want to do. This certainly proceeds impeccably with the extra background story. Many people may be able to relate to this idea. It is an important film in its genre because it will be a classic of our time of ingenuity. A classic tale reinvented to fit our modern ways of thinking and life. The film strengths concerning its generic element are that this is easily Burtons finest work, and while he takes some liberties with Lewis Carrolls classic, there are still ample amounts of the traditional Alice character traits to satisfy everyone. The film has rejuvenated the antique theme about Alice reclaiming her muchness and defying societal expectations. Wonderland is bestowed with amusement that is constant. A film adaptation should, of course, treat its source material as inspiration rather than dogma and this is clearly, what Tim Burton intended and has achieved. The films weaknesses concerning its generic elements are that it is such a well know tale that has been told repeatedly. It is hard to truly find a story that is not based upon another story these days. It does not help that fate is the key component to in the story. This added to the predictability of events given they are foretold to us early on. This causing the computer generated imagery or CGI technology to h eavy climactic battle to underwhelm when it does inevitably arrive. Wonderland is just how woefully conventional it all is. I found it very easy to care for the characters in this film. The conclusion came across as deeply extraordinary, as good was able to triumph. Society loves when good wins over evil because it gives everyone a good feeling. The audience has been given so much to empathize with. The character development is interesting to be to get to know these characters a little bit better. When Alice comes back around her extended family, she is then one by one imparting her newly learned knowledge onto them. This is a true sense that she had grown and become wiser. The journey to Wonderland has made absolutely very much difference to the Alices state of mind. At the commencement, she does not want to be married to the aristocratic and has a choice to make. By the end, she still does not want to be married to the aristocratic but she has been able to prevail in self-discovery in the span of time that she left. She has grown and learned about her strengths. She now knows what she truly wants to be able to make the necessary decisions that will affect her in a positive way. An easily enjoyable movie with much character depth.

Free Othello Essays: Four Faces of Man :: GCSE Coursework Shakespeare Othello

Four Faces of Man in Othello  Ã‚   The four main characters in the play Othello represent four different character traits of manhood: Roderigo, the failure; Othello, the hero, yet the insane lover; Cassio, the noblemen; and Iago, the villain, yet the strongest character of the play.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Of these four characters Roderigo reveals the weakest character traits. Iago effortlessly profits from Roderigo’s deficiency in a intelligence, in fact Iago himself said he would not waste time and effort on â€Å"such a snipe†(I iii 387) except for â€Å"sport and profit.† Towards the end of the play Roderigo reveals some traits that might classify him as a man with a spine. He finally stands up to Iago and threatens to expose the conspiracy against Othello and Cassio, but ultimately his flaws overpower his virtuous traits and he is persuaded by Iago to kill Cassio instead.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Likewise, Othello is the tragic hero of the play but his character is also weak. Jealousy is Othello’s major downfall. He reveals his insecurities in the scene where he strikes Desdemona and calls her a â€Å"devil†. Similarly, in the brothel scene, Othello’s insecurities arise when he cruelly questions Desdemona. He condemns her as a â€Å"simple bawd† and a â€Å"whore†, which he has no real proof of. Iago also easily manipulates Othello, like Roderigo, throughout the play. Othello is naive. He demonstrates that a few well-placed suggestions can alter his train of thought, such as when Iago was talking to Cassio and made Othello believe that the lieutenant was speaking of Desdemona instead of Bianca. On the whole, Othello was a weak character and a naive man.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   In contrast, Cassio’s character is strong. He spoke about Othello with dignity and grace, which no other character in the play does. Also, Cassio showed extreme loyalty to the Moor. Cassio’s only flaw is that he temporarily lost his power of reasoning when he was drunk and let himself be manipulated by Iago. All in all, Cassio is a good example of how a man should act; with dignity and honor.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Likewise, Iago’s character is also strong. He is an intelligent man as can seen in the soliloquy where he is hatching a plan to frame Cassio â€Å"to get his place â€Å"(I iii). In the soliloquy Iago’s intelligence is revealed in the statement â€Å"How, How? - To abuse Othello’s ear / That [Cassio] is too familiar with his wife.

Subliminal Advertising :: essays research papers

Subliminal advertising: A collective term for public announcements designed to promote the sale of specific commodities or services while being integrated below the threshold of perception or awareness. To sell products, merchants consciously use subliminal advertising as a basis for general consumerism. This seems like an unnecessary task, but when taken into consideration all the people, who have expressed their disbelief in its effectiveness, it is obvious to see how vital and necessary such a task commands. Through this, corporations must take on new strategies and methods of persuasion and justification. The importance is that advertisers rely on a trust relationship with consumers in order to successfully subliminally sell products. In other words, those who don't believe in subliminal advertising, are its likely victims. The effect of subliminal advertising on the individual and the culture has been influenced and promoted by many different elements. Let it be magazines, newspapers or radio; but the most prominent in this field is television. Television advertising influences the choices we make, perhaps more so than anyone cares to believe. It may not be so obvious, but even teachers face competition with advertising. Television stations, for example, have some four billion dollars a year from industry to spend on programming for the same students that teacher’s face. Nicholas Johnson, a former Federal Communications Commission Commissioner from 1966 to 1973 writes that television is diametrically opposed to almost everything a teacher tries to do: TV tells them that the only thing necessary to give them all the joys in life and the values that are important is the acquisition of yet another product. TV is telling them to sit still and don't think. TV is telling them that they are to be treated as a mass. He writes that it is extremely important to understand this force in our society if a teacher is to deal with it. He writes the most important thing to know is that advertising is a business. Johnson continues: It is the business of selling. But what it is in the business of selling is you and your students. You are the product being sold. Who are you being sold to? You're being sold to an advertiser. It is the advertiser who is the consumer in this equation. The advertiser is buying you. The advertiser is buying you from the broadcaster. And why the advertiser is buying you is because he wants you to look at his message; his billboard, his magazine ad, and in this instance, his TV commercial.

computer architecture :: essays papers

computer architecture Computer architecture covers the design of system software, such as the operating system (the program that controls the computer), as well as referring to the combination of hardware and basic software that links the machines on a computer network. Computer architecture refers to an entire structure and to the details needed to make it functional. Thus, computer architecture covers computer systems, microprocessors, circuits, and system programs. Typically the term does not refer to application programs, such as spreadsheets or word processing, which are required to perform a task but not to make the system run. In designing a computer system, architects consider five major elements that make up the system's hardware: the arithmetic/logic unit, control unit, memory, input, and output. The arithmetic/logic unit performs arithmetic and compares numerical values. The control unit directs the operation of the computer by taking the user instructions and transforming them into electrical signals that the computer's circuitry can understand. The combination of the arithmetic/logic unit and the control unit is called the central processing unit (CPU). The memory stores instructions and data. The input and output sections allow the computer to receive and send data, respectively. Different hardware architectures are required because of the specialized needs of systems and users. One user may need a system to display graphics extremely fast, while another system may have to be optimized for searching a database or conserving battery power in a laptop computer. In addition to the hardware design, the architects must consider what software programs will operate the system. Software, such as programming languages and operating systems, makes the details of the hardware architecture invisible to the user. For example, computers that use the C programming language or a UNIX operating system may appear the same from the user's viewpoint, although they use different hardware architectures. When a computer carries out an instruction, it proceeds through five steps. First, the control unit retrieves the instruction from memory—for example, an instruction to add two numbers. Second, the control unit decodes the instructions into electronic signals that control the computer. Third, the control unit fetches the data (the two numbers). Fourth, the arithmetic/logic unit performs the specific operation (the addition of the two numbers). Fifth, the control unit saves the result (the sum of the two numbers). Early computers used only simple instructions because the cost of electronics capable of carrying out complex instructions was high. As this cost decreased in the 1960s, more complicated instructions became possible. Complex instructions can save time because they make it unnecessary for the computer to retrieve additional instructions. For example, if seven operations are combined in one instruction, then six of

Compare the Rights and Responsibilities of Employers and Employees

When I spoke to the employer of the local paper shop, he told me that he shares many different rights and responsibilities with his employee's and they are the Health and Safety act and the Conditions of Employment. The Health and Safety act sets out rules that both the employer and employee should obey to run the business effectively, the employer has a right to provide safe equipment that won't put the employees in danger, however, the employee also has to obey any rule to the employer puts forward.The employer also has to carry out regular tests on all of the equipment in the work place to ensure that it is a safe environment for both him and the employees. Employers are expected to give the employees a copy of the terms and conditions of their contract, for the local paper shop, this isn't a great deal, however if it was a larger business such as New Look, the employee has a right to a documentation of their contract.There are also rules against sexual, racial and disability disc rimination which the employer can't ever breach, however, employees also need to stick to this law too, for example, if a new person got employed and he was a different race, it is going against the discrimination and racial act if you take hate upon this person because of the way they look, what colour they are, etc. Both employers and employees should act in a controlled way around the workplace and not put any other employee in danger.

Macbeth Act 3 Scene 5 Essay

This scene takes place in a ‘deserted area’ where there is thunder which also parallels with act 1 scene 1 where the witches meet each other with thunder and lightning. The scene establishes the mood of darkness and violence and also creates suspense and eerie atmosphere due to the presence of witches. It begins with Hecate’s monolog where she disapproved the witches for meddling with Macbeth’s future; this passage foreshadows the appearance of the witches to Macbeth along with his downfall. Her anger is shown at the opening of the scene with the use of three rhetorical questions. In the first rhetoric question, Hecate criticizes the witches in a deeming way. In the second rhetoric question the alliteration ‘trade and traffic’ emphasizes her upset tone and in the third rhetoric question she asserts her superiority over the witches â€Å"mistress of your charms, the close contriver of all harms†. Through the metaphor, ‘wayward son’ Hecate gives clues that Macbeth attempted to defy the witches prophecy by trying to destroy Banquo’s line. It also shows his self-centered ambition, and he is called a wayward son because he is not a genuine devotee of witchcraft and only aims to the profit by it. The lines by Hecate give a clear hint that Macbeth’s reliance on the witches is misplaced and that he is doomed. After rebuking the witches for the past errors Hecate commands them to â€Å"make amends† of their folly action. Hecate gives out a feeling of betrayal through the use of her language. She uses rhetorical questions, rhyming couplet, and enjambment which disguises her underline message. Hecate also asks the witches to help her manipulate Macbeth’s emotions and plans to create illusions which will lure Macbeth into a false sense of security. Hecate’s speech is ironical when she says that the witches tempted Macbeth by saying riddles when they actually prophesied to Macbeth. Euphemism is used in the terms glory of art and great business to refer to the witches plan of destroying Macbeth. The great business also refers to the major illusion that they are going to destroy Macbeth. Imagery is used in the scene were a vivid description of the scheme of the witches plan is described â€Å"there hangs a vap’rous drop profound; I’ll catch it ere it come to ground;† Hecate intends to lead Macbeth to his doom and distraction by magic spells which will conjure up powerful apparitions that will be able to lead Macbeth to his ultimate doom. As a result Macbeth will defy fate and death and will ignore all warnings of wisdom and fear of consequences â€Å"security is mortals’ chiefest enemy†, Hecate says that overconfidence is the greatest enemy of man as by depriving of his own wisdom and making him complacent, it sends him to the path of ruin and destruction. These captivating lines encapsulates the fascinating rituals of which craft.

How Human Influence Heredity In Mice Essay

Selective breeding is the process of breeding plants and animals for particular traits. Typically, strains that are selectively bred are domesticated, and the breeding is sometimes done by a professional breeder. Breaded animals are known as breeds, while breaded plants are known as varieties, cultigens, or cultivars. The cross of animal’s results in what is called a cross breed, and crossbred plants are called hybrids. A genetically modified organism (GMO) or genetically engineered organism (GEO) is an organism whose genetic material has been altered using genetic engineering techniques. These techniques, generally known as recombinant DNA technology, use DNA molecules from different sources, which are combined into one molecule to create a new set of genes. This DNA is then transferred into an organism, giving it modified or novel genes. The difference between selective breeding and genetically modified organisms is with selective breeding the animals are bred for certain re asons for their fur or eye color also they do it naturally with a professional breeder. But when you have genetically modified organisms they use technology to breed the animals or plants. From the reports I researched I have found out that mice originated in India and Southeast Asia. Many theories explain that Mice appeared on the earth 65 million years ago when dinosaurs still existed. The common ancestor to mice and humans was an inconspicuous rodent-like mammal that scurried along the surface of the earth. It had to be inconspicuous because the earth was ruled by enormous dinosaurs, many of whom would have eaten any small mammal that could be caught. It has been predicted that the existence of mice resulted in the formation of a thick cloud of dust that, lead to a scenario like a nuclear winter with the disappearance of all green life, and with that, all large animals that depended either directly on plants for survival or indirectly on the animals that ate the plants would die. At least a small number of our rodent-like ancestors were able to survive these long sunless winter‘s because of their small size which allowed them to get by eating seeds alone. When the sun finally returned, the seeds scattered on the ground sprung to life and the world became an extremely fertile place. In the absence of competition from the dinosaurs, the mice were able to become the dominant large animal group, and they created numerous species. Since there are such a wide variety of mice they use them for all sorts of things. Mice are sometimes breaded as laboratory mice so that they can be used for experiments. They use mice and not dogs to test out medicine for humans because like I stated earlier the similarities of mice and humans are so close that when you test the medicine on the mouse you know that if you tested the medicine on a human that they would have the same reaction. That’s why 65 million years ago the genes from a mouse mixed with genes from a human and created a rodent like mammal to roam the earth. Outdoor mice provide an essential food source for owls, hawks and other predatory birds and animals. They may also be important consumers of weeds and insects. Indoor mice are not beneficial indoors, but if there are cockroaches or other insects in infected buildings, mice are probably eating them. Eliminating mice may result in a rise in the building’s visible population of insect pests.The only disadvantages of mice are that the indoor mice are usually intruders to a family’s garage or dark closet. This results in the poisoning or planning of mice traps that will kill the mice instantly. Some environmental concerns of selective breeding mice are the breeding could cause genetic problems which would make it easier for mice to get sick. With every type of selective breeding (which consists of linebreeding, outcrossing, and inbreeding) there are always safety concerns. If you breed them wrong the mother or the baby could die or get a genetic disease which could stop them from hearing, seeing, or walking. Selective breeding appears to violate mice’s rights, because selective breeding involves manipulating mice for human’s ends as if the animals were nothing more than human property, rather than treating the animals as being value in themselves. Mice are worth more than a failed laboratory experiment in a dark dungeon they are magnificent creatures that deserve sunlight, food, water, shelter, and most importantly love.

Cohesion and Discipline of the Party in Government

Parties matter in part because they influence the actions of elected officials. But scholars also note that lawmakers from the same party may not vote together. Party cohesion has varied over time – sometimes party members stick together on many key votes, at other times they are no more likely to vote with fellow party members than with the opposition. Parties have various means at their disposal to encourage members to cooperate in achieving a party program. Sometimes these tools are sufficiently compelling that individual members may back the party program at the expense of their constituents' interest.However the case is quite different in European Parliamentary systems of government where party cohesion is essential for the implementing of government policies that the party in power wishes to impose. Although party cohesion in American government has risen because of intraparty heterogeneity and the realignment of the South (Hetherington and Larson), the party discipline and unity is not nearly as cohesive as those found in Parliamentary systems. This is in large part due to the fact that the tools of the party leaders in each system are different.In Parliamentary systems, because the risk of not voting in terms of party could lead to the collapse of the present regime and government system, party leaders tend to have more effective tools at their disposal to use in encouraging party cohesion/discipline. Party discipline or cohesion  is the ability of a  political party  to get its members to support the policies of their party leadership. Party discipline is essential for all systems of  government  that allow parties to hold  political power  because it determines the degree to which the governmental organization will be affected by the political processes.Party cohesion is closely related to party discipline (Aldrich). Distinctly, however, it is essentially â€Å"coordinated† behavior reflecting the interacting incentives of individual legislators, whereas party discipline is the outcome of a strategic game played within political parties, in which legislators who are party members respond to rewards and punishments determined by some internal party decision-making regime. In political systems other than American presidential democratic system, straying from the party lines can result in the fine and/or expulsion of members such as in the  People's Republic of China (Aldrich).Party discipline tends to be extremely strong in  Parliamentary systems such as in  European countries in which a vote by the legislature against their party is understood to cause the governmental â€Å"collapse† of the present regime (Huber). In these situations, it is extremely rare for a member to vote against the wishes of their party. Party leaders in such governments often have the authority to expel members of the party who violate the party line.Weak party discipline is usually more frequent in congressional s ystems  such as the  United States Congress where power within in the party is more democratic than the authoritarian system seen in parliamentary governments, with leaders dictating order to the members to follow suit. In these American legislatures, it is routine for members to cross party lines on a given vote, typically following the interests of their region (constituents) or following other members of a borderline group within their party.In America the risk is not that high, with party disagreement just results in the upsetting of the party elites without true damaging costs except for the withdrawal of their support. Party cohesion and party discipline are very distinctive under parliamentary government, where a lack of cohesion and/or indiscipline among parliamentarians belonging to government parties may jeopardize the very existence of the government. Certainly from the perspective of making and breaking governments, levels of party discipline are very high in Europea n parliamentary democracies.There are very few examples indeed of parties that have been â€Å"half-in, half-out† of government, in the sense that legislators from the same government party have voted in different ways on key legislative motions of confidence and/or investiture. In this sense parties do go into and come out of government in a unified manner. In the American democracy, this just isn’t the case. Politicians have more allegiance to their regions and constituents than to their party. Because of the way the nomination system works. Party nominations no longer rest in the hands of party elites but in those of the public.Thus it’s better for one’s political career to appeal to the public and not to party. According to other scholars enhance this opinion by adding â€Å"the main influence of party discipline is not on the votes on specific roll calls but on the choice ideologically of the party† (McCarty, Poole and Rosenthal). This suggest s that members will vote in line with their ideals rather than their leadership. To come to this conclusion they observed changing patterns of roll call voting among party-switchers and inferred that legislators appear o coordinate on roll calls because they change policy preferences to reflect those of their parties. Thus the question becomes, why do members of political parties even bother to behave in cohesive manners? Political scientists and elites have attributed this behavior to a trinity of solutions. Electoral incentives for legislators that arise from the value of a party label, strategic incentives within the legislature that reward legislators who behave in a coordinated fashion, and the ability of party leaders to implement a system of rewards and punishments are all attributed reasons (Hix and Simon).Political scientists argue that electoral incentives might generate emergent party cohesion. By creating a type or brand that politicos can blanket themselves under in ord er for voters to infer information about candidates in elections. Recognized legislators join political parties to signal policy positions to voters, doing this so long as it increases their chances of election or re-election. Voters make inferences about candidates’ policy preferences only by observing their party membership.Identifying candidates with their party and ignoring what candidates might actually say about their own policy preferences. Candidates in these models do have underlying policy preferences and thus prefer to join parties comprising like-minded colleagues (Krehbiel). This is because the party policy positions that are part of the brand with which each member is associated are influenced by the positions of all party members.In this system it benefits a candidate to vote along party lines in order to be associated with a specific regime policies, outcomes, and therefore successes. Party membership involves costs that arise from this incentive. There are co sts arising from associating with a party label indicating a unique policy position that differs from the ideal point of the member – and of being associated with a party that will actually implement this position if it is in a position to do so(Snyder and Ting).Since the primary focus of this type of work is on the electoral phase of the political game, and despite occasional references to â€Å"party discipline†, this approach involves no explicit model of intraparty politics– except for the assumption that the party policy platform is chosen by either a dictatorial leader or simple majority voting by party members (Snyder and Ting). In addition, this incentive assumes that politicians are allowed to join, and to remain within, any party they choose. The only â€Å"filter† on party entry in such odels is party policy itself which, combined with the deadweight costs of party membership, discourages legislators with very divergent policy positions from jo ining the party (Snyder and Ting 2002: 95) This means that the underlying process being modeled is a type of sorting or the partitioning of voters between parties, but the logical engine of this model could also be applied to explain the sorting of politicians between parties on the assumptions that party positions are some function of the positions of party members and that politicians want to affiliate to the party with the closest position.While this large body of work gives us useful intuitions about electoral incentives for legislators to affiliate to parties, the main lesson is that electoral incentives may well make a party label a valuable commodity. Thus, if a party’s decision-making regime can intensely threaten to withdraw the party label from party legislators if they fail to abide by party decisions about legislative behavior, then this will make those decisions easier to enforce.On this perspective, party discipline is about legislators responding to explicit or implicit threats by party leaders to impose electoral costs by withdrawing the party label, by casting votes in otherwise costly compliance with party policy. The resources party leaders in both parliamentary and US federal government and parliamentary government context can deploy to structure the incentives of legislatures in a way that ensures party discipline include control over electorally valuable party labels (party identity) and control over sought-after perquisites in the legislature.However, this incentive structure has an important new dimension under parliamentary government, arising from the fact that the legislature typically functions as a recruitment pool for the executive, and political ambition of its members are at the forefront. In Parliamentary governmental system, party leaders have the tools at their disposal to make or break candidates if they dissent, because the stakes are so high. If government parties cannot maintain firm party discipline, then they can not retain a secure hold upon office.When legislative parties do move into government, control over the allocation of important government jobs, whether these are cabinet or junior ministries or other key patronage appointments, typically rests in the hands of a very small number of senior party politicians, who can and do use these offices to reward loyal party members and who can and do punish mavericks by denying them the rewards of office. However, in American politics party leaders do not have the authority to simply dismiss a candidate.They may only throw their endorsement or support candidates with funds and become â€Å"king makers†. It is unrealistic to think that Nancy Pelosi can tell a conservative democrat to go away. She can allow withhold resources (money and her name recognition support). But this won’t be enough if the candidates’ constituents carry him through to victory. Legislative incentives also coexist which derives from improved expectatio ns in relation to a range of legislative payoffs that accrue to legislators who belong to larger rather than smaller cartels or coalitions of legislators.A large part of the relevant literature has been concerned with the role of party in the US Congress, and how the main concern of those elected is to pass legislature and having a single legislative party commands a majority position. The main legislative resource is the ability to capture a majority coalition of legislators. This is achieved by controlling the allocation between legislators of agenda setting legislative offices, such as committee chairs.On this argument, the power to make such allocations is delegated by party members to the party hierarchy, which can use this power to enhance party discipline, which in turn feeds back to enhance the value of the party label in the electoral game. This is important because the legislature is the main political arena in which legislators seek to fulfill their objectives, policy and otherwise. US parties impose discipline on their members by manipulating scarce agenda-control resources is in contrast an alternative influential argument, ( Krehbiel (1993, 1998).This holds that what looks like legislative party discipline is an essentially emergent phenomenon. US legislators choose which party to affiliate to on the basis of their intrinsic policy preferences – in effect joining a party of like-minded individuals and then quite voluntarily behaving in the same way as these on the floor of the House without the need for any â€Å"externally† imposed party effect. Legislators are voting the same way because they like the same policies, or because they are responding to the same non-policy incentive structure put in place by the party hierarchy.There are two roll calls put in place to ensure this outcome (Snyder and Groseclose). On one hand there are â€Å"lop sided† roll calls. In which first, legislators will treat these as a forgone conclusi on and, second, that party leaders will see them as offering no rationale for the (by assumption costly) deployment of party discipline. On the other hand there are â€Å"close† roll calls, for which coordinated legislator behavior makes the difference between winning and losing. There is strong evidence suggesting that the â€Å"party effect† is much higher for close than for lop-sided roll calls.They infer from this that US parties can and do influence the behavior of their legislative members when this makes a real difference, and do not attempt to do so when it does not. Cohesion seems to be closest when the party leadership has publicly identified as a priority, and find much more of a party effect on these than on issues that are not party priorities. Party cohesion in parliamentary government is important to the proper function of government because it essentially in lamest terms â€Å"makes or breaks government†.Under the constitutional regime of parliam entary government, that is pervasive in Europe, almost certainly the most important role for the legislature arises from the fact that the executive gains and retains office as long as it maintains the confidence of the legislature. This requirement is constitutionally manifested in the parliamentary vote of confidence/no confidence in the government (Huber 1996; Lijphart 1992, 1999). The executive under parliamentary government, furthermore, the â€Å"cabinet† of ministers bound together under the constitutionally embedded rule of collective cabinet responsibility.The stability and effectiveness of the government thus depends upon the ability of government parties to maintain disciplined behavior by party legislators. Effective party discipline means that a government is not defeated – either on votes of confidence/no confidence or on key pieces of legislation – because some legislators who belong to government parties vote against the government. Thus, while t he vote of no confidence is the constitutional foundation of parliamentary government, the behavioral foundation can be seen as party discipline.If the government parties maintain firm discipline on the part of their legislators, and if they control sufficient legislative support to take office in the first place, then they can maintain themselves in office, with firm control over the entire political process and facing few legislative impediments to the implementation of their policy and other objectives. Conversely, if government parties cannot maintain firm party discipline, then they cannot retain a secure hold upon office. The key point in all of his concerns the huge incentive in a parliamentary government system for senior party politicians – who themselves will often be members of the government – to maintain firm discipline over the members of their party. What is so striking about incentives for party cohesion and discipline under parliamentary government, as opposed to presidential government, is that these incentives cast the role of party leaders in a completely new light. â€Å"Party leaders† tend to play explicit and implicit roles. Party leaders tend to be seen as managers who essentially offer coordination and enforcement services to party members.As agents of their party, such party leaders have incentives to shirk. Imposing party discipline, by whatever means, is thus the fulfillment of obligation The reason such models of party discipline can look bizarre and unrealistic in the context of parliamentary government is that an â€Å"agency/expensive-discipline† model of party leadership (Cox McCubbins) seems implausible in a constitutional environment where party leaders are senior politicians who are the key players in a series of interlocking at the essence of the political process.Not only do party leaders make the really key decisions – about making and breaking governments, elections, but they also enjoy the benefits of office when this is achieved – whether these are perquisites such as the hefty check, the government jet, or the ministerial Mercedes, or opportunities to shift policy outputs in preferred directions as a result of controlling vetoes and agendas. In a nutshell, maintaining tight party discipline is highly incentive compatible for party leaders under parliamentary democracy.Indeed it is difficult to think of reasons why party leaders in a parliamentary government system would not want to maintain tight party discipline. Except in the matter of a voting on a highly divisive, sensitive, and cross-cutting issue, such as gay marriage or stem cell research for which it is against party interests to be identified with a single unambiguous position – then a legislative â€Å"free vote† can be declared on the matter and legislators can be allowed to vote with their â€Å"consciences†. But the orderly ability to switch free votes on and off is an i ndicator of firm party control over the behavior of party legislators (Aldrich).Parties are institutions in their own right. They are endogenous institutions, but parliamentary governmental parties are more deeply embedded into the constitutional rules of the political game of parliamentary government than a mere behavioral coalition of legislators. They are â€Å"political clubs† with their own set of rules to abide by. They are guided by their own system of rewards and punishment. In parliamentary government, membership of the party is completely dependent on the party label and the incentive of legislatives to be associated with the party brand or label. Cohesion and coordinated voting produce this benefit.In which individual members have an incentive to take part in coordinated behavior if they can get away with doing so. As mentioned before, if members choose not to act in this fashion, they can be exiled from the party and thereby denied access to the party label. Actin g in accordance to party can result in the placement of one’s name on the party ballot. Parties have the right to endorse particular candidates as official party candidates. Under the list-Proportional Representation electoral systems that are very common in parliamentary democracies, parties absolutely control access to and candidate placement on the party list.Therefore, parties in parliamentary democracies directly control access to the party label on the ballot. If denied this, a putative candidate must be admitted to and endorsed by another party, or must form a new party, or must run as an independent. In addition, access to legislative perquisites, whether these are physical office accommodation, speaking time on the floor of the house (perhaps to impress constituents at the next election), or paid positions with access to considerable resources, such as committee chairs.There are thus plenty of opportunities for party hierarchs to reward and punish individual legislat ive party members as they go about their daily lives. No doubt in the U. S. A. the movement towards the establishment of a disciplined and responsible party system is largely confined to the academic world. In the presidential system in US government rewards and punishment do indeed exist but not on the same level as in the parliamentary government (Cox and McCubbins). Party elites cannot simply cast away political hopefuls directly due to the constitution and the format of the political system.Power is not solely in the hands of elites, but the major American parties, national and state, are not based on mass memberships. â€Å"Only here and there in the United States are attempts made to fix a large-scale party membership on a regular dues-paying basis and thus to correspond to the European parliamentary scale (Jackson Moselle). † Party cohesion is absent even among the party workers and all the discipline that exists among party organizers before elections ceases to exist after elections. The problem stems from American attitudes about party.Most Americans identify themselves with a particular party but do not feel that they are obliged thereby to work actively for that party’s nominees (Laver). Anyone can legally qualify himself as a party member just by going through some registration procedure. Unlike the parliamentary system where you must pledge party allegiance before even having one’s name considered on the ballot. No state demands work on behalf of a party’s candidates or contributions to its campaign funds as prerequisites for becoming a legal party member (Giannetti and Laver).Structure of the American party has impact on party cohesion. The party structure in America consists of â€Å"a hierarchy of permanent party committees from precinct to national committee†. The National Committee which stands at the apex is made up of one man and one woman from each of the states picked by some kind of machinery within its State organization. The seemingly hierarchical structure does not produce party cohesion for power is decentralized and each unit is independent and needs not approval form the others.For example, the Chairman of the County Committee does not depend for his post on the State Committee and the latter hardly depends for its tenure or powers on the National Committee. To add to decentralization of power is the absence of uniformity in structure. The most striking feature in the party organization in the U. S. A. is that it is regulated by State laws while in all other democracies party structure is determined by the party itself. Diversity in State laws regarding party organizations naturally does not give scope for political discipline for the parties in America.In addition, primaries took the power of selection away from a band of leaders and activists and placed in by law in the hands of the voters. Unlike in Parliamentary systems where the local party organization selects the cand idates, the national party organization is finally obeyed. V. O. Key express the view that â€Å"by the adoption of the direct primary the organization was stripped of its most important function, that of nomination†. Every political party has two divisions, the organizational and legislative, and party discipline is as essential in the latter as in the former.If party cohesion is judged on the basis of the roll-call vote and the frequency with which members of a party differ among themselves, the index of cohesion in U. S. A. may be said to be very low. â€Å"The relatively low cohesion among Republican and among Democratic Congressmen† is mainly due to the non- parliamentary system of Government. The Congressman in U. S. A. need have no fear that division in the ranks of the party will lead to the dissolution of the legislature unlike in the Parliamentary system. So the significant feature with the roll-call vote in the American Congress is the absence of party cohes ion.Each of the two parties is divided into several factions and the factions in the two parties join or oppose one another irrespective of party labels, depending on the issue put for voting (Krehbiel). The decentralized structure of the parties makes a member depend for his success in elections more on his constituency than on his party. However, party cohesion in American government is not nonexistent, even though it is not as strong as those under the parliamentary democracies system. Each party selects a floor leader, whips and a Caucus Chairman creating a somewhat centralized structure that in practice increase party cohesion.Commonly, the party groups cohere more tightly on some party dividing issues than on others. For example 4,658 members of the House in 11 selected modern sessions only 181 or less than 41 per cent voted with the opposing party more often than with their own. The proportion was slightly higher in the Senate. Out of 847 senators in 9 sessions, 63 percent se cured their parties on a majority of the votes. (Jackson and Moselle)† For there is a tendency for most Republicans to be in voting opposition to most Democrats on controversial issues, showing strong party discipline.Indeed, American party cohesion is on the up rise. Realignment of the South played a role as the South has consistently voted conservatively since the Nixon years (Hetherington and Larson). Another key piece is the ideological differences among the two major parties (Democrats and Republicans) are greater today than they have been in years pass. Scholars have noted that the more ideologically extreme, the higher the cohesion. As parties have more interparty heterogeneity, each party has developed more intraparty homogeneity, which has given rise to roll-call voting (Hetherington and Larson).Strong party leaders also play a role in this phenomenon. Members in each party endow their respective party leaders with powers to advance the policy agenda. Ideological unit y in the 1970s with House Democrats, cause them to place the Rules Committee under the control of party leaders. Thus giving the house Democratic Caucus more power to oust wayward committee chairs who stood in the progress of the party’s initiatives. Demonstrating, American parties have been adjusting to their weak party model, and adapting in a way to influence party cohesive as exhibited so strongly in the American government.It is the clear consensus that Parliamentary government is indeed stronger in party discipline and cohesiveness than its American presidential system counterparts. The main reason for this phenomenon rests in the power of the political elites in each party system and the tools the system provides for their disposal-party label, patronage, etc.. In American politics, elites can only indirectly influence party-line voting as granted to the present political system. However, in parliamentary government, elites directly have the authority to dismiss or ele vate the position of their members, thus encouraging party cohesion.Bibliography Aldrich, John H. 1995. Why Parties? The Origin and Transformation of Political Parties in America. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Cox,Gary, and Mathew McCubbins 1993. Legislative Leviathan. Berkeley: University of California Press. Cox, Gary, and Mathew McCubbins. 2005. Setting the Agenda: Responsible Party Government in the US House of Representatives. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, forthcoming. Gallagher, Michael, Michael Laver and Peter Mair. 2005. Representative Government in Modern Giannetti, Daniela and Michael Laver. 2005. Policy positions and jobs in the government.European Journal of Political Research. 44: 1-30. Hetherington and Larson. Parties, Politics, and Public Policy in America. 11th edition. 2009 Hix, Simon. 2001. Legislative behaviour and party competition in the European Parliament: an application of Nominate to the EU. Journal of Common Market Studies 39:4 (November 20 01), 663-688 Huber, John. 1996. Rationalizing parliament: legislative institutions and party politics in France. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Jackson, Matthew O. and Boaz Moselle. 2002. Coalition and Party Formation in a Legislative Voting Game Journal of Economic Theory, Vol. 103, No. 1, pp 49-87.Kollman, Ken, John Miller and Scott Page. 1992. Adaptive parties in spatial elections. American Krehbiel, Keith. 1993. â€Å"Where’s the Party? † British Journal of Political Science 23 (1): 235–6 Political Science Review. 86 (December) 929-937. Laver, Michael. 2005. Policy and the dynamics of political competition. American Political Science Review, forthcoming. Snyder, James M. , Jr. , and Tim Groseclose. 2001. â€Å"Estimating Party Influence on Roll Call Voting: Regression Coefficients versus Classification Success † American Political Science Review. Vol. 95, No. 3, 689-698 V. O. Key:  Politics, Parties and Pressure Groups. p. 12.